Bull-ogne

In this post I will be looking at the ‘sea’ as described being built and placed in the temple of Solomon. Here is the passage in which we find its description.

1Kings 7:23-26
23 Now he made the sea of cast metal ten cubits from brim to brim, circular in form, and its height was five cubits, and thirty cubits in circumference.
24Under its brim gourds went around encircling it ten to a cubit, completely surrounding the sea; the gourds were in two rows, cast with the rest.
25 It stood on twelve oxen, three facing north, three facing west, three facing south, and three facing east; and the sea was set on top of them, and all their rear parts turned inward.
26 It was a handbreadth thick, and its brim was made like the brim of a cup, as a lily blossom; it could hold two thousand baths.

Since there is no real practical ceremonial function mentioned (other than the priests to wash in, 2 Chron. 4:6), it would stand to reason that the sea had some symbolic significance. There are two key elements of the ‘sea’ which I will be looking at: the basin itself, and the 12 bulls. The first element we will look at will be the bulls.

Bulls were a common motif throughout the Ancient Near East and many of the deities are described as a bull (although not depicted as a bull directly, the symbol of the bull became associated with the deities. In many cases it was an epithet of the deity.) The Sumerian God Enki was considered the ‘black bull of the Abzu’ (the primordial sea of the underworld which is also an important consideration when discussing the ‘sea’). In the Sumerian myth, ‘Enki and the World Order’, Enki blesses the cities of Nippur, Ur, Meluhha, and Dilmun as well as organizes the sea and the land. There are several examples within this myth where Enki is identified with a bull.

(lines 1-16) Grandiloquent lord of heaven and earth, self-reliant, father Enki, engendered by a bull, begotten by a wild bull, cherished by Enlil the Great Mountain, beloved by holy An, king, mes tree planted in the Abzu, rising over all lands; great dragon who stands in Eridug, whose shadow covers heaven and earth, a grove of vines extending over the Land, Enki, lord of plenty of the Anuna gods, Nudimmud, mighty one of the E-kur, strong one of heaven and earth! Your great house is founded in the Abzu, the great mooring-post of heaven and earth. Enki, from whom a single glance is enough to unsettle the heart of the mountains; wherever bison are born, where stags are born, where ibex are born, where wild goats are born, in meadows ......, in hollows in the heart of the hills, in green ...... unvisited by man, you have fixed your gaze on the heart of the Land like a halhal reed.

In this section we see that Enki was believed to have been begotten by a wild bull. As such, the bull is the primary epithet of Enki. There are more examples within this myth where Enki is identified with the bull. (The following excerpt has been edited for content.)

(lines 250-266) After he had turned his gaze from there, after father Enki had lifted his eyes across the Euphrates, he stood up full of lust like a rampant bull, lifted his p---s, ej------ed and filled the Tigris with flowing water. He was like a wild cow mooing for its young in the wild grass, its scorpion-infested cow-pen. The Tigris ...... at his side like a rampant bull. By lifting his p---s, he brought a bridal gift. The Tigris rejoiced in its heart like a great wild bull, when it was born ....... It brought water, flowing water indeed: its wine will be sweet. It brought barley, mottled barley indeed: the people will eat it. It filled the E-kur, the house of Enlil, with all sorts of things. Enlil was delighted with Enki, and Nibru was glad. The lord put on the diadem as a sign of lordship, he put on the good crown as a sign of kingship, touching the ground on his left side. Plenty came forth out of the earth for him.

In this rather provocative description of Enki, he is illustrated as a bull full of lust who then creates the Tigris with his own semen. Enki is very often portrayed in art with the bull as a symbol. On a cylinder seal from the Akkadian period, Enki, known as Ea to the Akkadians, is pictured in the Abzu, with water flowing from his shoulders. At his feet, is a bull. In other Akkadian literature Ea (Enki) has two divine bulls known as the god of the field of Eden, and the god of the house of Eden (Hibbert Lectures, pg. 289).

Marduk, the chief god of Babylonia from the days of Hammurapi was known as the ‘young wild bull of day’ and as the ‘Ox who plows the furrow of the celestial fields’. The writing of his name was two signs with a meaning of the bull-calf of the sun. There is a standard of Shur which has a solar disk within which there are two bulls (among other symbols). The west Semitic storm god Adad (who was Enki’s twin brother), also known as Addu/Hadad is identified with the bull. On a stele erected by Sennacherib, we see Adad riding upon a bull. In Phoenicia Baal was represented by a bull and at Sidon Astarte was associated with a cow’s head. In the Gilgamesh epic, Ishtar calls upon Anu to release the Bull of Heaven upon Gilgamesh after his refusal of her advances. Many other deities in the Ancient Near East are compared to a bull in regard to their strength and prowess, however the previous list of deities are the ones most commonly associated with the symbol of the bull. The symbol of the bull was very often used to refer to gods of the storm, or as a reference to strength and power.

In the Enuma Elish, Marduk is pitted against Tiamat (otherwise identified with the primordial oceans). It is interesting and very much ties in with the theme of the ‘sea’ that, Tiamat, identified with the primordial sea, is also given qualities of a cow.

53. He laid down her (text: his) head, heaped [a mountain up]on it,
54. Opened up such a spring that a torrent could be drawn off,
55. (Then) released through her eyes the Euphrates and Tigris,
56. Closed up her nostrils, reserved [the water].
57. He heaped up high [mounta]ins at her udder,
58. Drilled fountains (through the dugs) to carry off the fountain head.
59. He bent back her tail, bound (it) [to] the "great band,"
60. [..........] ... the Apsu beneath his foot;
61. [......... ]her crotch, it wedged up the heavens,
62. (So) [the sky] was roofed, the earth fixed.

In line 57 we see that she had an udder, and in line 59 she has a tail. Both of these indicate that Tiamat was given the form of a cow (aka a female bull, if you hadn’t already made that connection). This will become more important as we look at the Abzu later on.

In Mesopotamian art, the horned cap of divinity was used from as early as the third millennium BCE and continued in use throughout the survival of that culture. The horned cap is likely derived from the horns of the wild bull. The cap was used as a general status of divinity and can be seen in Mesopotamian art on all different kinds of deities, from the highest of the gods, to the lower bull-men colossi of the Assyrian palaces. Below are some examples of the horned cap of divinity.

Needless to say, the bull as a sign of divinity (through the horned cap of divinity, the bull as an epithet of the deity, and the bull as a descriptive metaphor) was very prevalent throughout the Ancient Near East.

Bull worship within the Israelite tradition is not an unheard of phenomenon. Often we merely interpret such things that we read as ‘abominations’ or ‘idolatry’ on the part of the Israelites. However, these may be signs and clues as to what the bull symbolized or what its origins were in Israelite tradition and how this symbol managed to gain entrance into the house of Yahweh built by Solomon in the 10th century BCE.

The incident with the Golden calf in the desert is probably the earliest source of bull-worship that we see in Israel. However, there are some problems as to whether or not this was originally in this text or rather edited in at a later time. We see in 1 Kings 12:26-32 a very similar event in which Jeroboam sets up his golden calves in northern Israel.

26Jeroboam said in his heart, "Now the kingdom will return to the house of David.
27"If this people go up to offer sacrifices in the house of the LORD at Jerusalem, then the heart of this people will return to their lord, even to Rehoboam king of Judah; and they will kill me and return to Rehoboam king of Judah."
28So the king consulted, and made two golden calves, and he said to them, "It is too much for you to go up to Jerusalem; behold your gods, O Israel, that brought you up from the land of Egypt."
29He set one in Bethel, and the other he put in Dan.
30Now this thing became a sin, for the people went to worship before the one as far as Dan.
31And he made houses on high places, and made priests from among all the people who were not of the sons of Levi.
32Jeroboam instituted a feast in the eighth month on the fifteenth day of the month, like the feast which is in Judah, and he went up to the altar; thus he did in Bethel, sacrificing to the calves which he had made And he stationed in Bethel the priests of the high places which he had made.

Here is the account of Aaron and the golden calf in the desert as found in Exodus 32.

1 When the people saw that Moses was so long in coming down from the mountain, they gathered around Aaron and said, "Come, make us gods who will go before us. As for this fellow Moses who brought us up out of Egypt, we don't know what has happened to him."
2 Aaron answered them, "Take off the gold earrings that your wives, your sons and your daughters are wearing, and bring them to me." 3 So all the people took off their earrings and brought them to Aaron. 4 He took what they handed him and made it into an idol cast in the shape of a calf, fashioning it with a tool. Then they said, "These are your gods, O Israel, who brought you up out of Egypt."
5 When Aaron saw this, he built an altar in front of the calf and announced, "Tomorrow there will be a festival to the LORD." 6 So the next day the people rose early and sacrificed burnt offerings and presented fellowship offerings. Afterward they sat down to eat and drink and got up to indulge in revelry.

One can notice quite quickly that the words of Aaron and the words of Jeroboam are almost exactly the same. It is generally believed that the Exodus account is edited to match the Jeroboam account. The evidence can be seen in the language alone. Where Aaron makes only one golden calf, he still uses the plural which is somewhat out of place, whereas the plural gods in the words of Jeroboam make sense with his two golden calves. From this, it can be deduced that the Exodus account is of a later tradition than the Jeroboam narrative.

Another thing to consider is the seemingly out of place presence of an animal used in agriculture among a nomadic tribe in the desert. The natural development of religion is first naturism among a nomadic group of people. Once this group begins to settle and develop agriculture and the raising of animals, it is then that we begin to see animism develop, and particularly that of the ox or bull as they were used to plow. They were seen as a symbol of power and thus used very often in imagery associated with a deity. Therefore, it seems somewhat alien to have a bull image amongst the tribe of Israel in a desert. Scholars who support this view (Exodus borrowed from Jeroboam) generally believe that the reason this was inserted in the Exodus account was to give some credence to the condemnation of bull worship at a time contemporary with the editor. They did this by showing (or creating) an historical event regarding the worship of bulls and the ‘sin’ of the people in the desert and God’s displeasure with them. If this portion in Exodus does serve the purpose of trying to slant bull worship as evil in a time contemporary to the editor, then it is possible that in early Israel bull worship may have been common and not necessarily regarded as evil. Is there any evidence which may indicate this?

There is some evidence that the tribal names were somewhat indicative of each individual tribal god previous to the tribes uniting under one confederacy. Some names may suggest animal gods such as Leah (wild cow), Rachel (ewe), Caleb (dog). Ephraim may indicate a relation to the bull through a phonetic connection to the word, but far more with the frequency of Bull worship mentioned in the Old Testament as connected with Ephraim and the North, and never once in the south. The names of Isra-el, Ishma-el, Jerahme-el, and Jabne-el all somewhat indicate that these were originally names of gods. Other names are very clearly god names such as Edom, Dan, Gad, and Asher. Meek argues that it is likely the tribes entered into Canaan, each with their own particular tribal god. Over time the tribes became a confederacy and eventually Yahweh became the chief god of the others. However, undoubtedly some of the old traditions and paraphernalia remained from the older religious values and were grafted into the cult of Yahweh.

One glaring example of this is the symbol of the snake which is likely a remnant of the god of the tribe of Levi. It is likely no coincidence that the term for the giant sea monster which has been associated with the serpent is levitan which is obviously phonetically associated with levi (as I have mentioned before, Semitic words are made up of consonants which are varied slightly with vowels and other additives to make up different forms of the word such as nouns, verbs, adjectives etc.). It has been argued that the people of the tribe of Levi were originally shamans, or medicine men that had a certain ‘mantic power’ associated with the serpent (the term for serpent and divination are both NHS, with varying vowels). The serpent is even attributed certain powers of healing as we see in the incident of the bronze serpent in Numbers 21.

6The LORD sent fiery serpents among the people and they bit the people, so that many people of Israel died.
7So the people came to Moses and said, "We have sinned, because we have spoken against the LORD and you; intercede with the LORD, that He may remove the serpents from us." And Moses interceded for the people.
8Then the LORD said to Moses, "Make a fiery serpent, and set it on a standard; and it shall come about, that everyone who is bitten, when he looks at it, he will live."
9And Moses made a bronze serpent and set it on the standard; and it came about, that if a serpent bit any man, when he looked to the bronze serpent, he lived.

It seems somewhat strange that God would have the Israelites look at a graven image in order to obtain healing. This is likely a sign of something left over from the serpent cult of the tribe of Levi which survived into the writing of the book.
Thus we can see that there were images used within Israelite religion that seem to be foreign to the cult of Yahweh. These are likely a remnant of the individual tribe’s particular cults before the cult of Yahweh championed the rest to become the chief God of the Israelite religion. It may then be that the bull symbol used in the ‘sea’ of the temple of Solomon, may well be a leftover epithet of an older tribal deity.

The number of bulls being 12 is probably of some significance as well. In the Ancient Near East, the number 12 usually represented the Zodiac. However, in the Old Testament, it is usually used in reference to the 12 tribes of Israel. The third option could simply be that’s how many bulls it took to hold the thing up. I tend to lean towards the 12 tribes of Israel, or perhaps the Zodiac.

The next part of the molten sea we shall examine is the sea itself; the giant basin which contained water. Although there is a lot of talk about the discrepancy between the dimensions and the volume it contained, this does not concern us in this discussion. What I will be looking at now is what did this ‘sea’ symbolize? What are the roots of its meaning? It would seem like an awful waste of space if it had no significance.

Firstly, one must realize that these ‘seas’ were a common thing placed in temples and palaces throughout the ancient near east. We have at least two physical examples of ‘Abzu tanks’ that are in our possession. Below are pictures of both of them.
In the first picture we see an Abzu tank found in Assur inscribed by Sennacherib. In relief on the sides of the basin are fish garbed people each holding a basket towards the figure holding an overflowing vase. These were very likely priests of Eridu and the figure holding the overflowing vase could have been Ea/Enki, the god of the Abzu. In the second picture we have an example of an Abzu basin from the early dynastic period (approximately 3000-2300 BCE) from the Temple of Ningirsu at Girsu. It is replete with deities wearing the horned cap of divinity in relief all around the basin. They are each holding together with both hands overflowing vases signifying the Abzu. From these examples we can see that this idea of having a ‘sea’ or ‘Abzu basin’ within a temple of a god is not original within Israelite culture and was likely a borrowed idea from their Mesopotamian neighbours who had originally borrowed it from the Sumerians (from whom we see the earliest examples of this artifact). Thus we can deduce if we find the meaning of the ‘Abzu basin’, we may be that much closer to realizing the significance of the ‘sea’ in the temple of Solomon.

To know better what these basins symbolized, we must examine further the Abzu itself. The Ancient Near Eastern person had a very specific idea of how the world existed. I have already covered this in a previous post, but at the risk of being redundant and for the sake of possible new readers (yeah right) who haven’t gone back to read the first posts (which were pitiful lazy works which will be bolstered sometime in the near future) I will repeat what I said. The Ancient Near Eastern picture of the world (Sumerian, Babylonian, etc) was that the world was a flat disc surrounded with a rim of mountains and floating on an ocean of sweet waters, called the ABZU. Resting on these mountains was the sky in which rested the stars and other astral bodies. Below the earth was the netherworld, where the spirits of the dead lived (sheol in the old testament) And the whole earth was immersed in a giant bubble of boundless primeval ocean of salt water. Below is a diagram taken from Georges Roux's "Ancient Iraq" (yeah I copied and pasted that from the earlier post).

It is this ocean of sweet waters called the Abzu which is represented in these Abzu basins. The reason for this basin was likely a representation of the god’s struggle with the primordial ocean at the beginning of time and its eventual containment. In the Enuma Elish which we looked at earlier, Marduk is depicted as doing this very act. In this case the primordial ocean is personified as Tiamat. Marduk then defeats her and proceeds to create the earth and contain the primordial chaotic ocean.

Seung Il Kang’s recent article in ‘Biblica’ would equate the ‘sea’ with this idea of the creator verses the primordial sea. There are various Hebrew words used to describe this ‘sea’; HYS MWTSQ ( 1 Kings 7:23; 1 Chron. 4:2), YM HGHST (the Sea of bronze, 2 Kings 25:13; 1 Chron. 18:8, Jer. 52:17) and HYS (the sea, 1 Kings 7:24; 2 Kings 16:17). Seung bases his reasoning upon the etymology of the word ‘mwtsq’ (again I’m using the ‘ts’ to transliterate tsah-dee, or the ‘s’ with a dot underneath). In the modern versions of the Bible ‘mwtsq’ is interpreted as being derived from the Hebrew root ‘ytsq’, which means to cast, or pour. However, Seung proposes an alternative root verb of ‘tswq’, which means ‘to constrain, press upon, harass, oppress’. With this as the root, the translation would read, ‘The Sea has been constrained’. He believes that translators based their etymology of the word ‘mwtsq’ through the filter of the ‘sea of bronze’ used in Kings 25:13 and 1 Chronicles 18:8. Seung suggests that “the Deuteronomistic historian intentionally downplayed the original mythological import of the Sea’s name by deriving it from its construction material, or that the historian did not fully understand the meaning and significance of the Sea’s archaic name HYS MWTSQ” (Seung, pg. 101).

If we give Kang’s theory credence, then it stands to reason that there must be some evidence for Yahweh having some sort of battle with (or perhaps a simple interaction with) the primordial chaotic sea. If we look to the texts, I believe we can see several examples of this. The first, and probably the most obvious interaction that we can see between God and the sea is in Genesis 1.

9Then God said, "Let the waters below the heavens be gathered into one place, and let the dry land appear"; and it was so.
10God called the dry land earth, and the gathering of the waters He called seas; and God saw that it was good.
In verse two of Genesis 1, after Elohim creates the heavens and the earth, it is described as follows.
2The earth was formless and void, and darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was moving over the surface of the waters.

In other words, it seems that the earth was covered with water and this water was in some sort of pre-controlled state which could easily correspond to the primordial chaotic sea/abzu. Then in verses nine and ten Elohim gathers (QRH) the waters together into one place. The gathering (MQVH) of the waters is then called the seas. This seems to fit in very nicely with Seung’s translation of MWTSQ as being the sea has been constrained.

In exodus 14 we see Yahweh once again having an interaction with the sea. This time it is to aid his people in the escape from Egypt.

21 Then Moses stretched out his hand over the sea; and the LORD swept the sea back by a strong east wind all night and turned the sea into dry land, so the waters were divided.
22The sons of Israel went through the midst of the sea on the dry land, and the waters were like a wall to them on their right hand and on their left.

This was a very important point of history for the Israelites and may very well have been part of the inspiration for the ‘sea’ of the temple of Solomon. Here Yahweh divides the sea, which again gives off the impression of constraining, or pressing against the sea.

We also see several examples within the Psalms where Yahweh interacts with the seas.

Psalm 33:6, 7
6By the word of the LORD the heavens were made, And by the breath of His mouth all their host. 7He gathers the waters of the sea together as a heap; He lays up the deeps in storehouses.

These verses seem to hearken back to the epic of creation with the reference to gathering the waters of the sea and the deeps.

Psalm 65: 6, 7
6Who establishes the mountains by His strength, Being girded with might; 7Who stills the roaring of the seas, The roaring of their waves, And the tumult of the peoples.

This reference simply implies that God has control over the waters which is another example of how God interacts with the sea.

Psalm 74:12-14
12Yet God is my king from of old,Who works deeds of deliverance in the midst of the earth. 13 You divided the sea by Your strength; You broke the heads of the sea monsters in the waters. 14You crushed the heads of Leviathan; You gave him as food for the creatures of the wilderness.

Here it is possible that it is referring to the incident with the parting of the sea, or it may go back to creation as well. It is difficult to know for certain. But again, we see an example of God dividing (constraining) the sea. From all of these examples, we can see that the theme of God interacting with the sea is attested within the Deuteronomistic history as well as in the Psalms. This would support Kang’s translation of the molten sea as ‘the sea is constrained’.
I have tried to include a vast amount of information that is available in a short amount of time (probably to the detriment of my study). However, I will try to draw some conclusions (there are a few options) and then give my opinion as to the symbolic significance of the ‘sea’ in the temple of Solomon.

Although there are examples of the Abzu basins in temples throughout the Ancient Near East, the ‘sea’ in the temple of Solomon is unique in some respects. The Abzu basin is generally believed to represent the primordial sea which has been contained by the Creator God (in whichever particular cultural religion that god is). In this aspect, I think the ‘sea’ of the temple of Solomon corresponds with the symbolic significance of the Abzu basins. The physical examples of the Abzu basins we have show various figures in relief around the basin. The basins have straight sides and are generally in the shape of a rectangle/square of sorts. The shape of the ‘sea’ of the temple of Solomon is not given to us. It may have had straight sides or it may not have, we don’t know. There is no mention of any figures in relief around the sides of the ‘sea’ (other than the ‘gourds’ which went around the rim which seem to be for the purpose of decoration) which is also different from the Abzu basins we have in our possession.

As well, the ‘sea’ is set upon 12 bulls, 3 bulls facing in each direction (east, west, north, south) whereas the Abzu basins were (as far as we know) directly on the ground. It is these bulls that set the ‘sea’ apart from the Abzu basins of the Ancient Near East. These bulls could represent many things. The bulls could have simply been a symbol of the strength and power of Yahweh in connection to his power to control the sea and in reference to his power over the sea as seen in the creation epic. The bulls could also represent a leftover epithet of a tribal deity from the tribe of Ephraim or Jacob that survived throughout history as a symbol of Yahweh. As well, the bull was a symbol throughout the Ancient Near East associated with many gods and these bulls of the sea could be direct syncretism from a neighbouring culture of the time.

I tend to agree with Kang’s conclusion regarding the sea in that it represents God’s interaction and power over the waters and probably reflects God’s gathering of the primordial chaotic oceans to bring order to the world. As for the bulls holding the sea up, I think that it is likely a combination of the above options. Initially, the symbol of the bull was probably carried over from an ancient tribal deity into the cult of Yahweh. However, over time, rather than being a symbol of Yahweh himself, I think the bulls came to represent his power and strength. Also, the bull as a representation of deity as well as a symbol of power was prolific throughout the Ancient Near East and very likely played a role in the choice of the bulls holding up the sea. As for the number 12, it may represent the zodiac, or the 12 tribes of Israel. Likely in this case it represents the 12 tribes of Israel, although I would not discount the idea that it may be connected with the Zodiac.

The temple of Solomon was full of many varying symbols that represent the mind and religion of the Israelite community of the time. The ‘sea’ that we find in the temple of Solomon is also very symbolic in nature through the basin itself, as well as the bulls which hold it up. This post was designed to show the complexity of symbology within the temple through a specific study of the ‘sea’ itself. I think we have seen that nothing can be seen as simply decorative within the temple, but rather there is always some meaning.

Sources:

Iconography of Deities and Demons: Electronic Pre-Publication, 2008, Stephanie Dalley

The Heavenly Sieve Author(s): Samuel I. Feigin Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Jan., 1950), pp. 40-43 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542851

The Hibbert Lectures, A.H. Sayce, Published by Williams and Norgate, 1887

The Damaged "Blueprints" of the Temple of Solomon Author(s): Leroy Waterman Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Oct., 1943), pp. 284-294 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542354

The Molten Sea or is it? Seung Il Kang, Biblica, Volume 89, Fasc 1, 2008

Theophorous Proper Names in the Old Testament Author(s): Henry Preserved Smith Source: The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Oct., 1907), pp. 34-61 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/528100

The Supercaelian Sea Author(s): David Neiman Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 28, No. 4 (Oct., 1969), pp. 243-249 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/543291

Bull-Worship in Israel Author(s): Leroy Waterman Source: The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 31, No. 4 (Jul., 1915), pp. 229-255 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/528741

The Fifth Tablet of Enuma Eliš Author(s): B. Landsberger and J. V. Kinnier Wilson Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Jul., 1961), pp. 154-179 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/543187

The Treasuries of Solomon's Private Chapel Author(s): Leroy Waterman Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Jul., 1947), pp. 161-163 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542406

The Mouth of the Rivers Author(s): W. F. Albright Source: The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 35, No. 4 (Jul., 1919), pp. 161-195 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/528616

Babylonian and Assyrian Sculpture in the British Museum, H.R. Hall, Paris and Brussels, Les Editions G. Van Oest 1928.

Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia, Jeremy Black and Anthony Green
Fifth University of Texas Press printing, 2003

Anat: Ugarit's "Mistress of Animals" Author(s): Peggy L. Day Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 51, No. 3 (Jul., 1992), pp. 181-190 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/545543

Some Religious Origins of the Hebrews Author(s): Theophile James Meek Source: The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 37, No. 2 (Jan., 1921), pp. 101-131 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/528730

The Mount of Yahweh

There are three decorations or adornments of Solomon’s temple which I would like to discuss, which I believe have their roots not in a unique Israelite religious tradition, but rather as borrowed symbols which were prominent throughout the Ancient Near East. These are the Cherubim, the stands built by Hiram, and the Molten Sea.

In this post, I will be looking at the Cherubim. The Cherubim were used upon the Ark with regards to the mercy seat, as well as throughout the temple built by Solomon. The people of the Ancient Near East did not just use random images to decorate their temples. Everything had meaning. If one were to ask an "average Christian" what the cherubim were, the answer would naturally be angels. Of course this brings to mind images of human like celestial beings with wings, who have some sort of holy glow about them. However, I would like to argue the point that the Cherubim were not angels, but rather a common symbol and motif used throughout the Ancient Near East. Naturally, the concept of the Cherubim probably evolved throughout Israelite religion and Christianity into the concept of angels we think about today, but in this post, we will be trying to find the initial source of inspiration for the cherubim.

Our first clue that the Cherubim were not angels as we would imagine them is found in 2 Samuel 22:10,11 as well as in Psalm 18:10.

2 Samuel 22:10,11
10"He bowed the heavens also, and came down With thick darkness under His feet.

11"And He rode on a cherub and flew;And He appeared on the wings of the wind.

Psalm 18:9,10
9He bowed the heavens also, and came down with thick darkness under His feet.

10He rode upon a cherub and flew; And He sped upon the wings of the wind.

It is obvious from these two verses, which are identical and have an obvious literary connection that Yahweh rode upon a Cherub. The verses in 2 Samuel are taken from a song of David after he was rescued from the hand of Saul. The verse in the Psalms seems to be drawing upon the writings in 2 Samuel (or vice versa). Now unless this is some weird sort of holy piggy-back ride (it is difficult to imagine Yahweh with his arms and legs wrapped around an angel flying through the air) it would stand to reason that the cherubim must have had some other form, rather than human.

Although there is no direct textual evidence for the Mesopotamian gods having a mount, it is very common among the gods of the near east to have some sort of beast associated with them. It may be a normal animal, but more often than not, it was some sort of hybrid. Sometimes, these beasts were used in art to symbolize the god, or they would be erected on a grand scale as statues to guard the entrance to the deity’s shrine. Some examples of these beasts of the gods were: the snake-dragon of Marduk, Nabu, and Ashur; the lion-dragon of the god Ishkur; the bull which usually identified a god associated with the weather or lightning; the lion which was associated with Ningirsu and the goddesses Ninlil, Inana, and Damgulnuna; the horse of the god Shamash; the dog of the goddess Gula; the turtle and goat-fish of the water god Enki/Ea. Below is a picture of a relief at Maltai depicting various gods on their respective animals. Below that picture is a drawing of the same relief which is slightly clearer.

This relief was created likely by the Assyrian king, Sennacherib (704-681 BCE). Sennacherib is depicted flanking the gods on the far left and far right. From left to right the gods on their respective animals are: Ashur on a snake-dragon and lion-dragon; Mullissu on a lion, Enlil or Sin on a lion-dragon, Nabu on a snake-dragon, Shamash on a horse, Adad on lion-dragons and bull, and Ishtar on a lion. This relief was carved on a cliff face on a road from Assyria to the Upper Zab valley.

As you can see, a deity being associated with some sort of animal or hybrid animal is very common throughout the Ancient Near East. As I mentioned before, although the deities are often depicted in carvings as standing on their respective animals, this is not clear evidence that they rode upon them. It would seem that Yahweh is somewhat unique in this respect. Therefore, if the Cherub is something that can be mounted and rode as we saw in 2 Samuel and the Psalms, then it stands to reason that it must have been something animal-like in form. This would be consistent with the common motif of a certain animal or hybrid animal being associated with a deity in the Ancient Near East.

The Old Testament is somewhat scarce in its physical descriptions of the cherubim. In the construction of the temple, they are simply mentioned as being placed here and there. This along with the idea that they have wings is all we can glean from 2 Samuel. However in Ezekiel we do find a very vivid description of the cherubim from which we can begin to investigate the origins of this creature.

Ezekiel 1:4-14
4As I looked, behold, a storm wind was coming from the north, a great cloud with fire flashing forth continually and a bright light around it, and in its midst something like glowing metal in the midst of the fire.
5Within it there were figures resembling four living beings And this was their appearance: they had human form.
6Each of them had four faces and four wings.
7Their legs were straight and their feet were like a calf's hoof, and they gleamed like burnished bronze.
8Under their wings on their four sides were human hands. As for the faces and wings of the four of them,
9their wings touched one another; their faces did not turn when they moved, each went straight forward.
10As for the form of their faces, each had the face of a man; all four had the face of a lion on the right and the face of a bull on the left, and all four had the face of an eagle.
11Such were their faces. Their wings were spread out above; each had two touching another being, and two covering their bodies.
12And each went straight forward; wherever the spirit was about to go, they would go, without turning as they went.
13In the midst of the living beings there was something that looked like burning coals of fire, like torches darting back and forth among the living beings. The fire was bright, and lightning was flashing from the fire.
14And the living beings ran to and fro like bolts of lightning.

Later in Chapter 10, these creatures are confirmed as being the Cherubim.

20These are the living beings that I saw beneath the God of Israel by the river Chebar; so I knew that they were cherubim. 21Each one had four faces and each one four wings, and beneath their wings was the form of human hands. 22As for the likeness of their faces, they were the same faces whose appearance I had seen by the river Chebar. Each one went straight ahead.

Since I am trying to establish that Ezekiel’s description of the Cherubim is the same as those in the temple of Solomon, it is important to note that Ezekiel seems to have direct knowledge of the temple and is drawing heavily upon this knowledge. We can see this through the cherubim, the position of the wings of the cherubim being ready for flight, and the wheels of the bronze stands of Hiram(1 Kings 7:30-33). Thus we can carefully use this imagery to try to establish the form of the cherubim in Solomon’s temple.

There are three things that can be determined from Ezekiel’s description of the Cherubim. “All the living creatures have wings; the human countenance of the creatures is a prominent and constant feature of the cherubim wherever their faces appear; all their feet were the feet of the ox. (Waterman, pg. 250)” It is safe to assume that if the feet were that of the ox the lower bodies and extremities were also those of an ox. From this description in Ezekiel, we can reasonably conclude that the Cherubim were a composite animal of a human headed bull with wings (although the other faces on the cherubim were not human, the human face seems to be the prominent feature). This image very quickly brings to mind the winged bulls of Assyria as shown below.

These beasts would guard the entrance to the palaces of Assyria and the resemblance to the description of the Cherubim can scarcely be ignored. You can see in the second picture that these particular lamassu had had five legs, an artistic element designed so that the relief can be observed from the front and from the side. It is also worthy of note, that in both pictures of the lamassu shown above, they are wearing the horned cap of divinity which would designate this beast as either a god, or at the very least, as a celestial being. There is of course one major difference between these carved Assyrian lamassu and the cherubim which were constructed for Solomon’s Temple. The lamassu were still partly in relief whereas the cherubim seem to have been constructed fully round with outstretched wings.

1 Kings 6:27, 38
27He placed the cherubim in the midst of the inner house, and the wings of the cherubim were spread out, so that the wing of the one was touching the one wall, and the wing of the other cherub was touching the other wall. So their wings were touching each other in the center of the house.
28He also overlaid the cherubim with gold.

As they are said to be placed in the midst of the inner sanctuary, it is very unlikely that these were in relief as the Assyrian lamassu were, but were likely fully round statues with outstretched wings ready for flight. Perhaps the Cherubim being in this position of outstretched wings preparing to fly is related somewhat to the cherubim being the mount of Yahweh. Perhaps they are prepared to carry Yahweh to wherever he wishes to go from his house. However, this is merely conjecture on my part.

The etymology of the word Cherub is worthy of examination as well and may provide evidence to their likeness as well. There are several different theories as to the origins of this word which I will lay out here. The first theory is that the Hebrew word KRB is related to the English word griffin, a composite figure of an eagle, and a lion. Some would use this as proof that the Cherubim takes on the form of a griffin like creature. However, this is taking the word forward in time, instead of backwards, which is what we are trying to discover. We must look backwards from the word KRB in order to find the origin of it.

It is suggested that the Phoenicians were the ones to transmit the word KRB to the Hebrews. The corresponding beasts in Babylonia and Assyria are named Shedu and Lamassu, which of course gives us no relation to the word KRB. However, the bull-men also have a designation ALAD LAMMA, which is a combination of the ideograms for Shedu and Lamassu, and we unfortunately do not know the phonetic reading of this combination. It has been suggested that it may have been something similar to KRB (but there is no strong evidence for this).
The Assyrian word karubu which means blessed, or reverently greeted would seem to have a good relation to the word KRB if it were to describe the function of the KRB. Also, the word karubu is often used as an epithet of deities which would strengthen our argument as being the etymology of the Hebrew word KRB. A derivative of the word karubu, is the word kuribu. The kuribu is defined in the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary as, “representation of a protective genius with specific non-human features.” Esarhaddon had the kuribu erected in his restoration of the temple of Ashur.

d-lahme d-ku-ri-bu sha tsa-ri-ri rushshu idi a-na idi ulziz
I placed lahmu-monsters and kuribu made of reddish gold facing eachother.

(In rendering the transliteration, I have used ‘sh’ as the designation for ‘shin’, and ‘ts’ as the designation for ‘tsin’. Normally ‘sh’ would be an ‘s’ with a down facing ‘<’ on top, and the ‘ts’ would be an ‘s’ with a dot below it. Due to my lack of a font for the transliteration, I have opted for this somewhat cumbersome rendering. My apologies to all.)

The kuribu is here demonstrated to be something that can be erected in a temple and is likely some sort of conglomerate creature. It is also interesting that the kuribu has the dingir sign of divinity in front of it designating it as a celestial being or something of the gods. Having said all of this, it is likely that the Hebrew word KRB (cherub) has its roots in the Akkadian semitic word karubu, or its derivative kuribu. Whether it was transmitted directly to the Hebrews, or via the Phoenicians is unknown.

As for the physical evidence, we are left with very little. However there are a few Hebrew seals found at Megiddo, which was under Israelite control at the time of Solomon (1 Kings 4:7-12), that provide us with an example of some of the art during that time. There are three seals: the first found in stratum II of Megiddo (650-600 BCE) and the other two from Stratum III (780-650 BCE). Solomon’s Temple was completed roughly around 950BCE and survived until the Exile in 586 BCE. From this, we can surmise that these seals found in Strata II and III can give us some indication as to the art of the period while the temple of Solomon was in existence.

The first seal has been called the seal of Elemar, after the inscription upon it which is translated, ‘belonging to Elamar’. The name Elamar itself means 'God has spoken,' which can be compared to the biblical name Amariah. This may suggest that the owner of this seal may have belonged to a priestly family. The inscription on the top reads ‘lalamr’ (belonging to Elamar), and below the inscription are pictured two uraei (winged serpents) facing each other. Below this is a picture of a conglomeration of a lion with a human head and outstretched wings which can be called a sphinx. The other two Hebrew inscribed seals belonging to Stratum III are the seals of Asaph and Shema. Both again have conglomerate animals corresponding to the sphinx and griffon. There are scholars who would propose that the Cherubim actually correspond to the sphinx, rather than a bull-man.

Another example of conglomerate creatures in the art in Megiddo is the example of the pottery shrines which were pictured in the previous post. In the one shrine, it is evidenced that there are creatures along the sides with the lower bodies of an Ox and human heads.

These belong to Stratum IV (1000-800BCE) which would place them as possible contemporaries of the actual construction of the temple of Solomon. This is probably the greatest physical evidence we have for the cherubim being of a bull/human conglomeration as these pottery shrines are mini-representations of temples of the time. From this physical evidence of the Hebrew seals and the pottery shrines we can conclude that this motif of conglomerate animal art was alive and well within the Israelite kingdom which did include Megiddo within its realm of influence.

From the arguments above, I would conclude that the Cherubim would have had the form very similar to that of the bull-man colossi of the Assyrian reliefs. I base this conclusion upon the textual evidence in Ezekiel which describes them as having the feet of an Ox (or the bodies and lower limbs of an ox), wings, and the head of a human. Also, it seems that the etymology of the word KRB stems from the Akkadian word karubu or kuribu, the latter of which refers to a type of guardian which was placed in the entrances of the temple. Lastly, although the Hebrew seals at Megiddo do show that the motif of conglomerate animals was indeed prolific, the case for the cherubim being a sphinx is not convincing. I believe rather that the pottery shrines are more indicative of the art used in the temples themselves, and are indeed contemporary with the time of the building of the temple of Solomon. Thus, it is my opinion that the cherubim were not angels per say, but rather a bull/human like figure with wings which was very much a common motif throughout the ancient near east at the time. It would also seem much easier for Yahweh to ride upon this type of beast, rather than piggy-back on an angel.

Sources:

The Ark. A Miniature Temple Author(s): H. G. May Source: The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Jul., 1936), pp. 215-234 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/529185

The Heavenly Sieve Author(s): Samuel I. Feigin Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 9, No. 1 (Jan., 1950), pp. 40-43 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542851

The Treasuries of Solomon's Private Chapel Author(s): Leroy Waterman Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 6, No. 3 (Jul., 1947), pp. 161-163 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542406

Seal of Elamar Author(s): Herbert G. May Source: The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 52, No. 3 (Apr., 1936), pp. 197-199 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/528950

On Ancient Hebrew Seals Author(s): Sabatino Moscati Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Jul., 1952), pp. 164-168 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542634

The Damaged "Blueprints" of the Temple of Solomon Author(s): Leroy Waterman Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Oct., 1943), pp. 284-294 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542354

Bull-Worship in Israel Author(s): Leroy Waterman Source: The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 31, No. 4 (Jul., 1915), pp. 229-255 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/528741

A Hebrew Incantation against Night-Demons from Biblical Times Author(s): H. Torczyner Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1 (Jan., 1947), pp. 18-29 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542231

Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia,

Jeremy Black and Anthony Green

Fifth University of Texas Press printing, 2003

Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago Volume 8 ‘K’

Published by the Oriental Institute of Chicago, 1971, Chicago, Illinois, USA

The Deity In His/Her house

In this post I will be discussing the nature of the Ark of Yahweh, and the Temple in light of the function of images and temples in the Ancient Near East. Of course most would think that idolatry would not have occurred within the context of the worship of Yahweh in the Old Testament; however, as we begin to look at some of the evidence, it does appear that the Ark of Yahweh did indeed fill a role very similar to that of the cult image throughout the Ancient Near East. I will first attempt to examine the role of deity statues and temples throughout Mesopotamia and Egypt. We will then look at the Biblical text to see if there is any similarity between the two.

The cult image within Mesopotamia and Egypt served the purpose of housing the 'spirit' of the deity while at the same time, not actually becoming the deity. The statue was "imbued with (but did not in any way restrict) the divine presence" (Black, pg. 56). These statues would often undergo what is called an opening or washing of the mouth ritual which would prepare the statue to become indwelled by the deity.

Sacrifices and offerings (see my previous post on this topic) would be made to the cult image and often the images would be clothed. There is even evidence for clothing being of a gold color offered to the cult statue. There is a mention of golden garments in the Epic of Gilgamesh, plate 36. "I gave four talents of reddish gold for a garment for Marduk and Sarpanitum and clad Marduk and Sarpanitum in a gala-garment of reddish gold." (Oppenheim, pg. 172)

Archeological evidence indicates that these cult images were first carved from wood and then overlaid with gold or silver. Occasionally they would first be carved from stone. Often the face, hands and feet of the statues were covered with silver or gold leaf and the body would be covered with silver. There is textual evidence indicating as well, that the statues were regularily repaired and recovered with silver or gold.

These images would also periodically venture forth from their abodes in the temples. The statues would have their own boat/barge or their own chariots. During the New Year's Festival in Babylon, Marduk and Nabu's statues would make their way on wagons to the quay and then would go upstream on their barge to the bit akiti outside of the city. There is also an Egyptian story called the Princess and the Demon in which Khonsu journeys to Bekhten. "Then King Rameses gave command, and Khonsu, the Expeller of Demons, was placed in the Great Boat; and around the Great Boat were five small boats, with chariots and horses, numerous and splendid, on the right hand and on the left. The retinue of Khonsu, the Expeller of Demons, was the retinue of a king. For a year and five months they journeyed until they reached Bekhten." (Murray, pg. 4) It is generally thought that where it is documented that a certain god overlooked a battle, that the cult image was brought in its chariot (or barge) to oversee the battle.





It was also common practice among the rulers in the Ancient Near East to carry off the gods of their subservients whom they conquered along with the other plunder. "In my sixth campaign the rest of the people of Bît-Yakin, who had run off before my powerful weapons like wild asses, who had gathered together the gods of their whole land in their shrines, had crossed the great sea of the rising sun and 36in Nagitu of Elam had established their abodes; in Hittite ships I crossed the sea. Nagitu Nagitu-di'bina, together with the lands of Hilmu, Billatu and Hupapanu, provinces of Elam, I conquered. The people of Bît-Yakin, together with their gods, and the people of the king of Elam, I carried off; not a rebel escaped. I had them loaded in vessels, brought over to this side, and started on the way to Assyria. " (Sennacherib prism, column 4) Taking the gods of the conquered was a sign of dominance, and also showed the superiority of the conquering nation's god.

Temples in Mesopotamia were nothing less than the abode of the god. Each deity had their own specific temple in which they would reside. This is made very clear even by the names of the temples. Here are a couple of examples of names of the temples (first in sumerian, then their akkadian version, and finally in translation).

e.pa.ul.he, bit nin-gublag, house of nin-gublag (a deity)
e.babbar.ra, bit shamash sha sippar, house of shamash (deity) of sippar (city)

As you can see, in these two examples, the meaning is literally the house of a specific deity. Often the temples would also have a more ceremonial name as well, such as the house of the 50 anzu birds, which was the abode of the deity Ningursu.

The structure of the temples was generally of a rectangular shape with an inner shrine containing the cult image and an altar. In Eridu, the oldest city of southern Mesopotamia, a sequence of mud-brick temples was excavated which were rebuilt over top of each other through the fifth to fourth millenium B.C.E. The earliest is a small shrine about 3 square meters. This small shrine contains all the elements of the later temples within a small area. "An altar in a niche set opposite the doorway and a small offering table in front of it. In Later periods the plan was elaborated but retained its essentials. The shrine was lengthened and numbers of rooms added on either side." (Black, pg. 174) A Kassite temple at Uruk was the first to introduce relief figures modelled into the brickwork. These are thought to be magically protective in some form.

As the Sumerians continued to build on top of each successive temple, the mound grew and grew until it soon began to tower above the surrounding area, which has given rise to the belief that this mound inspired the Ziggurats. These ziggurats soon became the characteristic feature of Mesopotamian temples.

There continued to be both kinds of temples within Mesopotamia, those built on the ground in rectangular fashion with an inner shrine containing the cult image, as well as those built on mounds or in the fashion of the Ziggurat. It has been postulated that the two temples had different functions. The rectangular temple built on the ground functioned as the housing of the god, whereas the ziggurat tower fulfilled the role of a portal that the deity would use to visit the earth.

We will now move into the Israelite religion and look at the nature of the Ark of Yahweh. Let's first look at the physical construction of the Ark as described in Exodus 25.

10"They shall construct an ark of acacia wood two and a half cubits long, and one and a half cubits wide, and one and a half cubits high.
11"You shall overlay it with pure gold, inside and out you shall overlay it, and you shall make a gold molding around it.
12"You shall cast four gold rings for it and fasten them on its four feet, and two rings shall be on one side of it and two rings on the other side of it.
13"You shall make poles of acacia wood and overlay them with gold.
14"You shall put the poles into the rings on the sides of the ark, to carry the ark with them.
15"The poles shall remain in the rings of the ark; they shall not be removed from it.
16"You shall put into the ark the testimony which I shall give you.
17"You shall make a mercy seat of pure gold, two and a half cubits long and one and a half cubits wide.
18"You shall make two cherubim of gold, make them of hammered work at the two ends of the mercy seat.
19"Make one cherub at one end and one cherub at the other end; you shall make the cherubim of one piece with the mercy seat at its two ends.
20"The cherubim shall have their wings spread upward, covering the mercy seat with their wings and facing one another; the faces of the cherubim are to be turned toward the mercy seat.
21"You shall put the mercy seat on top of the ark, and in the ark you shall put the testimony which I will give to you.

The construction of the ark is very similar to that of the cult image. It was first made from wood and then overlaid with gold. This could be mere coincidence or a result of a common method of construction of these religious objects throughout the Ancient Near East. Obviously this evidence is somewhat circumstantial and alone is not enough to establish that the Ark served the same function as the cult image in Mesopotamia.

It can be seen that God inhabited the Ark in the same manner that the deity inhabits the cult statue. There are several examples of this in the Biblical text.

Exodus 25:22 There I will meet with you; and from above the mercy seat, from between the two cherubim which are upon the ark of the testimony, I will speak to you about all that I will give you in commandment for the sons of Israel.

It seems from this piece of text that God sits upon the mercy seat. It does not say that God lived inside the Ark; however, it would seem that his presence is very much associated with the Ark. We can see examples of this from other texts.

Judges 20:26, 27

Then all the sons of Israel and all the people went up and came to Bethel and wept; thus they remained there before the LORD and fasted that day until evening. And they offered burnt offerings and peace offerings before the LORD.
The sons of Israel inquired of the LORD (for the ark of the covenant of God was there in those days).

The fact that the ark of the covenant of God was among Israel seems to be a definitive point as to why the sons of Israel could inquire of God. It implies that the presence of God is, at the very least, dependant upon the presence of the ark. We can see another example of the belief that God's presence was with the ark in 1 Samuel 4.

1Thus the word of Samuel came to all Israel. Now Israel went out to meet the Philistines in battle and camped beside Ebenezer while the Philistines camped in Aphek.
2The Philistines drew up in battle array to meet Israel. When the battle spread, Israel was defeated before the Philistines who killed about four thousand men on the battlefield.
3When the people came into the camp, the elders of Israel said, "Why has the LORD defeated us today before the Philistines? Let us take to ourselves from Shiloh the ark of the covenant of the LORD, that it may come among us and deliver us from the power of our enemies."
4So the people sent to Shiloh, and from there they carried the ark of the covenant of the LORD of hosts who sits above the cherubim; and the two sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas, were there with the ark of the covenant of God.
5As the ark of the covenant of the LORD came into the camp, all Israel shouted with a great shout, so that the earth resounded.
6When the Philistines heard the noise of the shout, they said, "What does the noise of this great shout in the camp of the Hebrews mean?" Then they understood that the ark of the LORD had come into the camp.
7The Philistines were afraid, for they said, "God has come into the camp." And they said, "Woe to us! For nothing like this has happened before.

As was discussed earlier, it was common practice for the cult image to be carried into battle. In this example we see the Israelites bringing the ark into battle where Yahweh is presumed to sit upon the mercy seat. Certainly we see that the Philistines recognized this as the God of Israel coming into the camp. The attribute of the omnipresence of God does not seem to be a belief among the Israelites. It seems that here in this passage, his presence is tied directly to the presence of the ark in the same manner as the deity's presence in Mesopotamia is tied to the cult image.

Also in true Ancient Near Eastern fashion, in this same chapter we see that the Philistines carry off the ark (in the same manner as the kings of the Mesopotamia would carry off the cult image) after their defeat of the Israelites.

10So the Philistines fought and Israel was defeated, and every man fled to his tent; and the slaughter was very great, for there fell of Israel thirty thousand foot soldiers. 11And the ark of God was taken; and the two sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas, died.

With the ark now gone, we see that God has left with it.

21And she called the boy Ichabod, saying, "The glory has departed from Israel," because the ark of God was taken and because of her father-in-law and her husband. 22She said, "The glory has departed from Israel, for the ark of God was taken."

In an article in the American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, H.G. May seeks to give evidence of the ark as a miniature temple. He does this through physical remains as well as textual evidence. The archaeological evidence consists of two miniature shrines found in Megiddo which are representations of actual buildings and in particular, models of temples.

"The proto-Ionic volutes in the upper corners of the faced in Figure 1 were made to suggest pilaster capitals. Five voluted pilaster capitals were found associated with the Megiddo temple. The row of holes above the windows of this model shrine represent the openings for the dovecote of the sacred doves of the mother-goddess who was worshiped at the Megiddo sanctuary...on the former, which is in part reconstructed, there are four cherubim:the two on the facade are female and those on the side are male." (May, pg. 218)

From the description, as well as the pictures of the items which can be seen above, are very reminiscent of the temple as built by Solomon. "Then all the walls of the house round about he carved with carved figures of cherubim, palm trees, and opening flowers, within and without" (1Kings, 6:29). It is these miniature shrines shaped like temples which lead May to believe that the Ark, which also seems to display some of the same architecture of the temple, was intended to be a miniature temple. If this was the case, this only strengthens the case of the presence of God indwelling the Ark, as the temples of the ancient near east (as well as Israel), as we have already pointed out, were the abode of the deity.

Many scholars also believe that there were originally many arks, not just one, that were used in various worship centers. Along with this there is evidence that originally in the documents of the Old Testament it was written that there were many arks, but later editors substituted the Ephod (or Ephod may be a synonym) for the arks in these cases.

Since we have broached the topic of the temple in regards to the Ark, we will now continue on to that subject. The function of the temple (excluding the ziggurats) within the Ancient Near East as we discussed earlier, is that of the dwelling place of the deity. The temple built by Solomon was no different in its role.

1 Kings 8:12, 13

Then Solomon said, "The LORD has said that He would dwell in the thick cloud. 13"I have surely built You a lofty house, A place for Your dwelling forever."

It is also similar in structure to the temples of the Ancient Near East with regards to the placement of the Ark. As we saw earlier, the cult image was placed in an inner shrine within the temple. The Ark, serving as the cult image, and the 'embodiment' of the presence of Yahweh is also brought into the inner shrine.

1 Kings 8:6 Then the priests brought the ark of the covenant of the LORD to its place, into the inner sanctuary of the house, to the most holy place, under the wings of the cherubim.

Thus from the textual evidence we can see that the temple functioned as the dwelling place of the Lord, through the presence of the Ark being placed in the temple as well as through the very words of Solomon himself who claimed it as the house of God.

In 1 Kings 8:11 we see the glory of Yahweh entering the house. "10 It happened that when the priests came from the holy place, the cloud filled the house of the LORD,
11 so that the priests could not stand to minister because of the cloud, for the glory of the LORD filled the house of the LORD." The last phrase of the verse is literally, bit yahweh, or the house of yahweh. This is the exact same format verbatim used to name the temples of the ancient near east.

Therefore we have seen that the ark of God performed the same functions as that of the cult image of Mesopotamia and Egypt within Israelite religion. As well, the temple of God had many of the same attributes as those of the temples of the surrounding cultures of the time with respect to structure, function, and even name.

In the next post, I will be looking at some of the items in the temple such as the Cherubim, the stands made by Hiram, and the 'Sea' - for these items as well had very specific meanings in the Ancient Near East that could be considered "pagan" in nature.

Sources

The Travels of the Ark: A Religio-Political Composition Author(s): G. W. Ahlström Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 43, No. 2 (Apr., 1984), pp. 141-149 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/545088

The Temples of Babylonia and Assyria Author(s): D. D. Luckenbill Source: The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Jul., 1908), pp. 291-322 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/527646

The Golden Garments of the Gods Author(s): A. Leo Oppenheim Source: Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 8, No. 3 (Jul., 1949), pp. 172-193 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/542839

The Ark. A Miniature Temple Author(s): H. G. May Source: The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, Vol. 52, No. 4 (Jul., 1936), pp. 215-234 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/529185

THE HEAD OF KURA—THE HEAD OF ªADABAL Author: Alfonso Archi
Journal of Near Eastern Studies 64 no. 2 (2005), pg.81-100
Published by: The University of Chicago Press

The Early History of God
Mark S. Smith
Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. 2002

Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia,
Jeremy Black and Anthony Green
Fifth University of Texas Press printing, 2003

House Most High: The Temples of Ancient Mesopotamia
A.R. George
Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, Indiana, 1993

Legends of Ancient Egypt
M.A.Murray
General Publishing Company, Toronto, Canada, 2000

A Bloodthirsty God, or an Adaptable God

I am what most people would classify as an animal lover, and as an animal lover, it is troublesome and problematic for my faith to look at the Israelite religion and see the ritualistic sacrifice of animals which God seemingly required from his followers. There is of course the argument that God required these sacrifices because he is a Holy God and cannot tolerate sin, and the punishment for sin is death. However, if God is indeed God, doesn't he make the rules? This arguement somehow binds God to some Holiness Code that was created by somebody else. But if he is indeed God, then it would stand to reason that he created said Holiness Code. It would seem to me that holiness denotes all that is good, and if God was indeed so good, why would he require that the punishment for sin be so bloody? It doesn't really seem to add up.


Another option could be that these ritualistic sacrifices didn't originate as an idea of God's, but rather as the construction of humans. Perhaps the Israelite rituals had their roots in the religions of their time. It is this option that I would like to explore in this post.


I will start by looking at the general view of the Mesopotamians in regard to their role in the world, and how they related to the gods. Humanity was created by the gods to serve and obey them. The only means by which humanity could influence the gods was through prayer and sacrifice, or in other words persuasion and gifts. It is also attested in many texts that the gods had to be sustained or fed by humanity. When a sacrifice was made, it was for the purpose of being eaten by the god to whom it was offered. An example of this is seen in the Epic of Gilgamesh Flood Episode in the eleventh tablet where Utnapishtim, after exiting the boat makes an offering to the gods.


Then I sent out everything in all directions and sacrificed (a sheep). I offered incense in front of the mountain-ziggurat. Seven and seven cult vessels I put in place,and (into the fire) underneath (or: into their bowls) I poured reeds, cedar, and myrtle. The gods smelled the savor,the gods smelled the sweet savor,and collected like flies over a (sheep) sacrifice.


In the older sumerian version of the flood, after all of humanity has been destroyed the gods are seen lamenting their decision as there was nobody to provide them with food and drink. In the Genesis account of this we see God also enjoying the smell of the sacrifice. Although it does not indicate that he eats the sacrifice, it does seem to play a role in his decision to never again destroy the earth.


20Then Noah built an altar to the LORD, and took of every clean animal and of every clean bird and offered burnt offerings on the altar. 21The LORD smelled the soothing aroma; and the LORD said to Himself, "I will never again curse the ground on account of man, for the intent of man's heart is evil from his youth; and I will never again destroy every living thing, as I have done.


Although it does appear in the previous passage that God does indeed consume the sacrifice, in Psalm 50:9-13, Yahweh specifically denies eating the sacrifices. "I shall take no young bull out of your house Nor male goats out of your folds. 10For every beast of the forest is Mine, The cattle on a thousand hills. 11 I know every bird of the mountains, And everything that moves in the field is Mine. 12 If I were hungry I would not tell you, For the world is Mine, and all it contains. 13 Shall I eat the flesh of bulls Or drink the blood of male goats?" However, we have already seen in previous postings that the Bible is fraught with seeming contradictions. This is likely an example of a progression in thought and ritual. If we look at several examples in Leviticus it seems quite obvious that it was believed that God did consume at least a portion of the sacrifice.


3: 16'The priest shall offer them up in smoke on the altar as food, an offering by fire for a soothing aroma; all fat is the LORD'S.


21: 6'They shall be holy to their God and not profane the name of their God, for they present the offerings by fire to the LORD, the food of their God; so they shall be holy.


21: 8'You shall consecrate him, therefore, for he offers the food of your God; he shall be holy to you; for I the LORD, who sanctifies you, am holy.


21: 17"Speak to Aaron, saying, 'No man of your offspring throughout their generations who has a defect shall approach to offer the food of his God.


Therefore, like their mesopotamian neighbours, the Israelites also believed that the offerings they made were consumed by God. It never goes so far as to as to say that God required this food, but it is obvious that the nature of some offerings were sustenance for God.


It is also attested in Sumerian literature that the offer of a sacrifice should be a perfect animal. There are several examples in the Gudea cylinders which detail the building of the temple of Ningursu.


When the night fell, he went to the old temple to pray, so that the inclination of the one from the dais of Ĝir-nun (i.e. Ninĝirsu) would become favourable for Gudea. When day broke, he took a bath and arranged his outfit correctly. Utu let abundance come forth for him. Gudea left Iri-kug a second time; he sacrificed a perfect bull and a perfect kid. He went to the house and saluted it.


Like Utu, he rose on the horizon for the city. He wound (?) a turban (?) on his head. He made himself known by the eyes of holy An. He entered the shrine of E-ninnu with raised head like a bull and sacrificed there faultless oxen and kids. He set bowls in the open air and filled them full with wine. Ušumgal-kalama was accompanied by tigi drums, and ala drums roared for him like a storm. The ruler stepped onto the outer wall (?) and his city looked up to him in admiration. Gudea ……. (6 lines missing)


In Mesopotamian religion, the reason for the flawless animal is generally that it is more acceptable to the god (perhaps more tasty), whereas in Israelite religion, the flawless animal is often interpreted as being innocent (thus the blood of an innocent is spilt for the guilty) which is theologically more convenient when it is reconciled with salvation through Christ. However, the reason for the perfect animal may very well be in line with the mesopotamian reason for the sacrifices.

Motivation for performing these rituals for their respective deities seems to have been the same in both Israel and their neighbouring cultures. This was the prospect of reward. If one performed the rituals and served the gods, they would be rewarded by the gods. Examples of this can be seen in Babylonian wisdom literature. One proverb even goes so far as to say that one can control their god by witholding sacrifice.


"Do not sacrifice, sir, do not sacrifice. You can teach your god to run after you like a dog."

If one wishes to see the rewards that were promised to the Israelites who obeyed Yahweh, simply look at Deuteronomy 28.


1"Now it shall be, if you diligently obey the LORD your God, being careful to do all His commandments which I command you today, the LORD your God will set you high above all the nations of the earth.
2"All these blessings will come upon you and overtake you if you obey the LORD your God:
3"Blessed shall you be in the city, and blessed shall you be in the country.
4"Blessed shall be the offspring of your body and the produce of your ground and the offspring of your beasts, the increase of your herd and the young of your flock.
5"Blessed shall be your basket and your kneading bowl.
6"Blessed shall you be when you come in, and blessed shall you be when you go out.
7"The LORD shall cause your enemies who rise up against you to be defeated before you; they will come out against you one way and will flee before you seven ways.
8"The LORD will command the blessing upon you in your barns and in all that you put your hand to, and He will bless you in the land which the LORD your God gives you.
9"The LORD will establish you as a holy people to Himself, as He swore to you, if you keep the commandments of the LORD your God and walk in His ways.
10"So all the peoples of the earth will see that you are called by the name of the LORD, and they will be afraid of you.
11"The LORD will make you abound in prosperity, in the offspring of your body and in the offspring of your beast and in the produce of your ground, in the land which the LORD swore to your fathers to give you.
12"The LORD will open for you His good storehouse, the heavens, to give rain to your land in its season and to bless all the work of your hand; and you shall lend to many nations, but you shall not borrow.
13"The LORD will make you the head and not the tail, and you only will be above, and you will not be underneath, if you listen to the commandments of the LORD your God, which I charge you today, to observe them carefully,
14and do not turn aside from any of the words which I command you today, to the right or to the left, to go after other gods to serve them.


There is another type of sacrifice that is not quite so bloody, but was also required by the gods and by Yahweh. This is an offering of worship. Take a look at a couple of Psalms.


Psalm 6
4Return, O LORD, rescue my soul; Save me because of Your lovingkindness. 5For there is no mention of You in death; In Sheol who will give You thanks?


Psalm 30
8To You, O LORD, I called, And to the Lord I made supplication: 9"What profit is there in my blood, if I go down to the pit? Will the dust praise You? Will it declare Your faithfulness? 10"Hear, O LORD, and be gracious to me; O LORD, be my helper."


It is clear from these verses that the psalmist is indicating that if God doesn't answer his plea, he is in danger of losing a worshiper. It also implies that God desires, if not needs the worship of his followers. If God didn't require worship, why would the psalmist use this as a bargaining chip?


In these very few examples (there are many many more), I have attempted to demonstrate how the ritualistic sacrifices of the Israelites were not unique in their practice. Rather, they were one religion amongst many that practiced ritualistic sacrifice to their respective deities. Even their reasons behind the sacrifices are very similar. Both used sacrifices to feed the gods as well as used them to obtain blessings and the help of their god in this life.


This leads us to the conclusion that in all likelihood, God did not mandate this sacrificial system of the Israelites, but rather the popular religion of the time involved these bloody practices and the Israelites naturally adopted this system inserting their own theological ideas into it. If this was the case, why would God have allowed such brutal pagan practices to occur amongst his people?


One option that I have come up with to reconcile this is quite simple. Here we see an example of how God comes into the culture of the time and adapts to that culture in order to reach humanity. If one looks at this passage in Hebrews 10 in light of this conclusion it takes on a kind of fresh light.


5Therefore, when Christ came into the world, he said:"Sacrifice and offering you did not desire, but a body you prepared for me; 6with burnt offerings and sin offerings you were not pleased. 7Then I said, 'Here I am—it is written about me in the scroll— I have come to do your will, O God.' " 8First he said, "Sacrifices and offerings, burnt offerings and sin offerings you did not desire, nor were you pleased with them" (although the law required them to be made). 9Then he said, "Here I am, I have come to do your will." He sets aside the first to establish the second. 10And by that will, we have been made holy through the sacrifice of the body of Jesus Christ once for all.


This is quite the contrast from the God we see in the the early OT who seems to delight in the smell of the savoury sacrifices.


If we take this idea a step further, Jesus' death seems to be even more sacrificial on his part as he steps into the culture of the time and dies (perhaps needlessly) in order to fulfill a theological idea of a sacrificial system created by the Israelites and their surrounding pagan cultures. Of course this is just one idea of how to reconcile this seemingly brutal example of religious syncretism in the Israelites. It does however provide some comfort to myself to think that perhaps God is not a bloodthirsty God, but rather one who is so desperate to help humanity and to reach us, that he will even adapt and use our hellish rituals and cultish practices in order to have a relationship with us.

Do You Believe in Ghosts? (A Halloween Post)

Seeing as how this is the Halloween season, I thought it appropriate to talk about the topic of Necromancy, or the ability to contact the dead. Naturally, most Christians' response to this is that it is impossible, and that the act of contacting the dead is demonic, and that the dead being spoken to are just demons.

The basic questions that I will be looking to answer are: whether or not Necromancy occurs in the Biblical text, whether it is condemned by God, whether it was used by God, and whether the Bible rejects the power and existence of spirits or ghosts.


I think that if we look at Deuteronomy 18:9-13, it seems pretty obvious where God stands on this issue of necromancy.


9 When you enter the land which the LORD your God gives you, you shall not learn to imitate the detestable things of those nations. 10 There shall not be found among you anyone who makes his son or his daughter pass through the fire, one who uses divination, one who practices witchcraft, or one who interprets omens, or a sorcerer, 11 or one who casts a spell, or a medium, or a spiritist, or one who calls up the dead. 12 For whoever does these things is detestable to the LORD; and because of these detestable things the LORD your God will drive them out before you. 13You shall be blameless before the LORD your God.


This insinuates that the Canaanites did indeed practice these types of detestable acts and that the Israelites were not to imitate them in this. Suffice it to say that there is evidence within the Ugaritic texts for the practice of necromancy/consulting the dead (KTU 1.124; 1.161). Now, there are two different views on this commandment. One is that the practice of necromancy among the others in the list is by nature an abhorrent practice according to normative Yahwistic religion. The second option is that these practices were a form of inquiry that competed with prophecy. Either way, it seems that God did not want people to consult the dead for advice.


However, there is one instance in the Bible where necromancy was used and it seems that God used the event to speak. I am referring, of course, to Saul and the witch of Endor. Later sources even interpret this as prophecy (Ben Sira 46:20) Here is the text (1 Samuel 28):


3 Now Samuel was dead, and all Israel had mourned for him and buried him in his own town of Ramah.


(This sounds an awful lot like the beginning to Dickens "A Christmas Carol" to me, which reads: "Marley was dead, to begin with. There is no doubt whatever about that. The register of his burial was signed by the clergyman, the clerk, the undertaker, and the chief mourner. Scrooge signed it. And Scrooge's name was good upon 'Change, for anything he chose to put his hand to. Old Marley was as dead as a door-nail. .")


Saul had expelled the mediums and spiritists from the land.
4 The Philistines assembled and came and set up camp at Shunem, while Saul gathered all the Israelites and set up camp at Gilboa. 5 When Saul saw the Philistine army, he was afraid; terror filled his heart. 6 He inquired of the LORD, but the LORD did not answer him by dreams or Urim or prophets. 7 Saul then said to his attendants, "Find me a woman who is a medium, so I may go and inquire of her." "There is one in Endor," they said.
8 So Saul disguised himself, putting on other clothes, and at night he and two men went to the woman. "Consult a spirit for me," he said, "and bring up for me the one I name."
9 But the woman said to him, "Surely you know what Saul has done. He has cut off the mediums and spiritists from the land. Why have you set a trap for my life to bring about my death?"
10 Saul swore to her by the LORD, "As surely as the LORD lives, you will not be punished for this."
11 Then the woman asked, "Whom shall I bring up for you?" "Bring up Samuel," he said.
12 When the woman saw Samuel, she cried out at the top of her voice and said to Saul, "Why have you deceived me? You are Saul!"
13 The king said to her, "Don't be afraid. What do you see?" The woman said, "I see a spirit coming up out of the ground."
14 "What does he look like?" he asked. "An old man wearing a robe is coming up," she said. Then Saul knew it was Samuel, and he bowed down and prostrated himself with his face to the ground.
15 Samuel said to Saul, "Why have you disturbed me by bringing me up?" "I am in great distress," Saul said. "The Philistines are fighting against me, and God has turned away from me. He no longer answers me, either by prophets or by dreams. So I have called on you to tell me what to do."
16 Samuel said, "Why do you consult me, now that the LORD has turned away from you and become your enemy? 17 The LORD has done what he predicted through me. The LORD has torn the kingdom out of your hands and given it to one of your neighbors—to David. 18 Because you did not obey the LORD or carry out his fierce wrath against the Amalekites, the LORD has done this to you today. 19 The LORD will hand over both Israel and you to the Philistines, and tomorrow you and your sons will be with me. The LORD will also hand over the army of Israel to the Philistines."


It is this passage that we are going to analyze for this post, as it is the most explicit example of necromancy being used by God to deliver his message. There are a wide range of options of interpretation for this passage. Was it by God's power that the woman raised Samuel or was it by her magical/demonic abilities that he was raised? Was the spirit really Samuel, or some other spirit that was allowed to take his form? Or maybe the woman never did see Samuel but was deliberately trying to deceive Saul. It is my opinion that the text should be taken somewhat at face value. By whose power Samuel was raised is not really an issue for what we are looking at today. My concern is the fact that he was raised - displaying that necromancy, in the Bible, was seen as having legitimate power and could indeed be used for consulting the dead.



Why would Saul choose to have Samuel brought up to speak to him? Saul had sought answers to his problem via the normal acceptable yahwistic practices such as prophets, urim, and dreams. However, after receiving no advice through these means, Saul turns to necromancy. But again, why Samuel? Some suggest that it is an issue of legitimacy of kingship. It was Samuel that anointed Saul in the first place, and he could again give him advice and provide legitimacy to his kingship. While his kingship is not the direct cause of him going to the necromancer, it is definitely a major theme in this passage. Samuel in his oracle even addresses this issue in the negative.


An extra-biblical example of necromancy being used in association with the legitimization of kingship is found in a letter to king Esarhaddon dated 672 B.C.E. The question was sought regarding whether or not Ashurbanipal should have been awarded the position of crown prince. The question is answered in the affirmative by consulting Esarhaddon's recently deceased wife Esharra-hamat.


(The crown prince) explained (it as follows): "The gods Ashur and Shamash ordained me to be the crown prince of Assyria because of her (=the dead queen's) truthfulness." And her ghost blesses him in the same degree as he has revered the ghost: "May his descendants rule over Assyria!" (As it is said), fear of the gods creates kindness, fear of the infernal gods returns life. Let the (king, my) lord give order.



We can see that the practice of necromancy to legitimize kingship was indeed used in the Ancient Near East. This could be one of the reasons why Saul has called upon Samuel. Another reason simply could be that Samuel was a prophet during Saul's time who helped guide him, and Saul, having been left in a prophetic node, is seeking the person who has helped him in the past. In all likelihood, both of these reasons probably play a part in the choice of Samuel.



What is also interesting about this passage is that it is apparent that Saul cannot see the apparition; only the woman who is performing the ritual can. This is consistent with Mesopotamian necromantic rituals. Mesopotamian necromancer texts describe how a magic ointment must be smeared on the necromancer's face in order to allow them to see the spirit of the dead. "One must rub (ointment) on one's face and then one is able to look at the ghost and he will speak." Thus it would seem that necromancy had some semblance of congruence throughout Mesopotamia, including Israel, in regard to the methodology of bringing up the dead.


There is more evidence for this which involves a lot of tedious language analysis regarding the term 'lohim,' referring to what the woman sees coming up from the ground. Without going into the details, this could refer to the god or gods which fetch the spirit up from the netherworld, and not to the spirit of Samuel himself. This again would be consistent with other Ancient Near Eastern texts surrounding this subject.


Thus in a very short amount of time (much shorter than usual), we can come to our conclusions and answer the questions we put forth at the beginning of the post. Does necromancy occur in the Biblical text? Why, yes it does, as we have seen. Next question. Is necromancy condemned by God? Yes it is, but the reason behind this is in question (competition with prophecy, or simply abhorrent). Was necromancy used by God? The answer is 'yes'. It is apparent from 1 Samuel 28 that God used the practice of necromancy to deliver a message to Saul. Lastly, does the Bible reject the existence and power of the spirits of the dead. The answer is 'no'. Although in many places the Bible condemns the practice, it most certainly does not say that the ability to communicate with the dead does not exist, nor does it deny the existence of spirits. In fact, we saw an example of that very power being used with success in the Saul account.


So, do you believe in ghosts? If you believe in the Bible then your answer to this question must ultimately be 'yes'. This is an example of one of those uncomfortable aspects of the Bible that doesn't exactly mesh with most Christians' actual belief system. I was basically brought up to believe that there are no such thing as ghosts or spirits but only demons masquerading as such. For example, Ouija boards do not consult the dead, but consult demons who masquerade as the spirits of the dead. Although this may be true, the Bible would not necessarily say that these are demons, but that they may very well be spirits of the dead.


Of course, I'm not recommending that you go out and consult a medium to talk to your deceased ancestors, as this is obviously not condoned by the Bible. Rather, what I am suggesting is that possibly our ideas about the spirit world as we know it (such as the non-existence of ghosts and the ability to contact them) are not entirely supported by the Biblical text. There is so much that we can't possibly know about the after-life and the spirit world that one can't make blanket statements about these things (such as 'ghosts are just demons'). For example, I know some people find great comfort in the thought that a deceased loved one is still keeping an eye on them and helping to watch over them. I personally would never say that their deceased loved one is not still watching out for them, as I could never prove otherwise.


This is kind of a different subject, but being Halloween, I thought it appropriate. If you want your child to have a spooky costume that's biblical, dress him/her up as the ghost of Samuel rising up from the bowels of Sheol!


Happy Halloween!