Omens, Divination and Israelite Religion

In this post, I will look at some aspects of divination in Mesopotamian religion, as well as take a look at divination in the Israelite Religion. Divination is the ability to predict the outcome of events or the future through supernatural means. If you are Harry Potter, this means predicting the future through the shape of tea leaves in a cup. Divination may also take place in the form of omens; common events in nature which have a specific meaning. This is a huge topic, and I will by no means be giving it an exhaustive treatment. I will just touch on a few things here and there. I apologize in advance for the length of this post.

We have a vast amount of omen and divination tablets from Mesopotamia in our possession. Unfortunately, there are no translations available on the web for you to look at, so you will be stuck with my translations. I tend to translate very literally, in cumbersome English so as to attempt to not lose anything in the translation (impossible, we all know). The Mesopotamians had tremendous volumes of omen texts which can be categorized into 4 different types. One is the divination of entrails on sacrificial victims. Another is the group of astronomical omens which are called "enuma Anu Enlil" (When Anu and Enlil). The third is a series of medical diagnosis called "enuma ana bit ameli marsi ashipu illiku" (When unto a house of conifer illness to silence you go). Finally, there is the one which concerns the incidents of every-day life upon earth and are called the "shumma alu in mele shakin", (If a city upon a hill is set ). These are all named for the first lines which occur in the text itself.

I personally have only done some translating out of the last text (this took place in Japan while I was sitting at my desk in the school I taught at, while trying to look busy). Cuneiform texts are notoriously difficult to translate as often they are very fragmented. Other challenges include different types of script for different times in history, the messy work of the person writing it, different dialects for different geographical regions and different points in history, and the vast amount of ideograms which are created using the syllabic characters which have to be determined from context. You weren't meant to know what that all meant, I just wanted you to know how hard it was (a la Batman Begins).

These omen texts are written in the Neo-Assyrian Script, which would date them somewhere between 950 and 600 B.C. The "Shumma Alu" series contains many variations in omens. The first section concerns details regarding a city (of which I will give some examples). Others concern forms assumed by water poured on the ground, omens connected with a sinking well, appearances of various fiends and devils in houses, forms of cracks which appear on the walls of houses, ghosts in a house, ghosts of deceased members of a family, serpent omens, omens from animals or insects, and more. The Babylonians believed the gods created the world, and that many times, they revealed their divine will through everyday occurrences in the world. One could divine the future and the will of the gods, if one had the eyes to see, simply by observing the world around you. This art eventually developed into the classification and recording of these signs for the seer (baru) to refer to and give a prognosis. Without further ado, here are some examples of the omen texts regarding a city. The dot dot dots represent fragmentation of the tablet.

If a city on a height is placed, entering is not good.

If a city in a valley is placed, entering is good.

If a city on an edge of....is placed....

If a city is built on a reed bed it is imprisoned...

If a city its dwelling it changes...

If a city its dwelling is peaceful...

If a city its mouth it cries out...

If a city, its mouth is constantly peaceful, enter, put in order many things.

If a city its opening unto the interior comes up, entering is destruction

If a city is built of sliver of wood, unto the interior comes up, enter the quay...

And it goes on like this. You get the idea. It is a grand catalogue of omens from which one can divine the will of the gods, or simply live a better life by knowing what the future holds. These texts were catalogued and collected somewhere during 900-600 B.C., but the history of divination and omens in Mesopotamia is much older. These omens that were written down, were done so over centuries by the baru-seer until the system we see before us was completed (and it probably continued to be added to and modified after this). All this to demonstrate that divination was alive and well in the Ancient Near East. This begs the question, did the Israelites practice divination along with their Mesopotamian neighbours? I would argue that they did. Although one reads in many Biblical texts of the condemnation of divination, it seems that in the early religion of the Israelites there is evidence of omens being used to divine Gods will. We will also see how the Israelites had their own somewhat unique brand of divination which began very early in their tradition and survived right through the Exile.

In the first text we will look at, Numbers 22-24, we find the king of Moab, Balak, sending for the diviner Balaam to inquire of him in order to find out about the Israelites, and for the purpose of cursing them. Here we find that God works through the diviner to save Israel. It is interesting that the Bible says that God spoke to this prophet, even though he is a non-Israelite (assumed non-Israelite, it is not specified). We also see that they build seven altars at the high places to Baal to obtain a message, and yet God still speaks to Balaam to deliver a message (even this little point could have far reaching consequences theologically if followed to its end).

Then it came about in the morning that Balak took Balaam and brought him up to the high places of Baal, and he saw from there a portion of the people. 1Then Balaam said to Balak, "Build seven altars for me here, and prepare seven bulls and seven rams for me here."
2Balak did just as Balaam had spoken, and Balak and Balaam offered up a bull and a ram on each altar.
3Then Balaam said to Balak, "Stand beside your burnt offering, and I will go; perhaps the LORD will come to meet me, and whatever He shows me I will tell you." So he went to a bare hill.
4Now God met Balaam, and he said to Him, "I have set up the seven altars, and I have offered up a bull and a ram on each altar."
5Then the LORD put a word in Balaam's mouth and said, "Return to Balak, and you shall speak thus."

Then Balaam goes on to say that he cannot curse Israel. Balak asks him to consult again, and in the second response we see a reference to divination and omens.

23 For there is no omen against Jacob, Nor is there any divination against Israel; At the proper time it shall be said to Jacob And to Israel, what God has done!

So we see here that God, speaking through Balaam, references the fact that there are no omens or divinations against Israel. Although this is an example of God using divination and omens to accomplish his will, it is not a direct example of the use of omens and divination within Israelite religion. However, there is one ritual the Israelites had very early on that survived through the exile. There are only eight references to this ritual in the Bible, so we will take a look at each of them. I am referring of course to the Urim and the Thummim, the proverbial 'eight ball' of the Israelite religion. The Urim and Thummim are presumably two stones through which the Priest could discern God's will. It is somewhat sketchy, and modern scholars assume that it could only answer yes and no questions (like the eight ball). Let's look at the Biblical evidence.

Exodus 28:30" You shall put in the breastpiece of judgment the Urim and the Thummim, and they shall be over Aaron's heart when he goes in before the LORD; and Aaron shall carry the judgment of the sons of Israel over his heart before the LORD continually

It seems here that the Urim and Thummim were a specific part of the breastpiece of the priest, however this passage does not reveal to us anything specific about these two items, other than the fact that they were to be a part of the uniform.

Leviticus 8:8He then placed the breastpiece on him, and in the breastpiece he put the Urim and the Thummim

Again, no specific evidence regarding their function. We just see here that they are a part of the breastpiece.

Numbers 27:21"Moreover, he shall stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall inquire for him by the judgment of the Urim before the LORD. At his command they shall go out and at his command they shall come in, both he and the sons of Israel with him, even all the congregation."

Now we come across something slightly more specific. Here we see Eleazor inquiring of God, via the judgement of the Urim. How exactly the priest does that, this verse doesn't say.

Deuteronomy 33:8Of Levi he said,"Let Your Thummim and Your Urim belong to Your godly man, Whom You proved at Massah,With whom You contended at the waters of Meribah;

Here we have a simple mention of the existence of the Urim and Thummim with no specific details regarding them.

1 Samuel 28:6When Saul inquired of the LORD, the LORD did not answer him, either by dreams or by Urim or by prophets

Some scholars believe that the Urim and Thummim were actually held in a pouch and then one was drawn at random to obtain a yes or no answer to a question. If that were the case, this verse in Samuel does not seem to resonate with that idea. If it was a simple matter of drawing a rock out of a pouch, one would receive an answer every time. It seems from this verse that the Urim and Thummim can choose not to respond. Thus, it seems, there must have been some other method of obtaining an answer from these rocks.

Ezra 2:63The governor said to them that they should not eat from the most holy things until a priest stood up with Urim and Thummim.

Nehemiah 7:65The governor said to them that they should not eat from the most holy things until a priest arose with Urim and Thummim.

These references to the Urim and Thummim show that their use survived through the exile due to the dating of these two books.

Well, that was pretty unexciting, wasn't it? The Bible contains few obscure references to these items with no real details as to what they do. In order to find out more about the Urim and Thummim, we must turn to the extrabiblical evidence, namely the Qumran texts (the Dead Sea Scrolls) and Josephus. According to these texts, these rocks are worthy of being the objects of desire in an Indiana Jones movie. The Biblical references seem to assume that everyone knew what the Urim and Thummim were and how they worked; however, we, the reader during this era, would like some more juicy details. The following texts provide that for us.

First we'll take a look at a text from the Qumran called Tongues of Fire. It is extremely fragmentary, but gives us a look at the manner in which the Urim and Thummim would respond to questions.

...the stone, just as the Lord commanded...and your Urim...And the cloud shall come forth with him, with tongues of fire. The left-hand stone which is on its left side shall be uncovered before the whole congregation until the priest finishes speaking and after the cloud has been lifted...And you shall keep...the prophet has spoken to you...who counsels rebellion...the Lord your God...

...the right hand stone when the priest comes out...three tongues of fire from the right hand stone...from...and after he goes up he shall draw near to the people... the Lord your God...Blessed is the God of Israel...among them all... and then the priest shall interpret all His will, all...the congregation...O Children of Israel, keep all of these words...to do all...the number of commandments...their...

And your Urim. And the cloud shall come forth with him, with tongues of fire. The left-hand stone which is upon its left side shall be uncovered before the whole congregation until the priest finishes speaking. And after the cloud ha been lifted...And you shall keep...and the prophet has spoken to you.

It is of note here, that tongues of fire are seen coming out of the stones. It would seem that this is how the Urim and Thummim were used to divine God's will - a supernatural occurrence. These texts also note that the priest used the stones to interpret God's will. I will take a look at one more text from the Qumran called "A Commentary on Isaiah."

This refers to the twelve priests...who make the Urim and the Thummim shine in judgment...and there is nothing missing from them, like the sun with all its light.

Here we can see again that the stones are shining. This text also tells that the Urim and Thummim were used in judgment. Perhaps judgment upon a certain people, or judgement in decisions, it is not clear. Either way, it is clear that the Urim and Thummim were used as a source of divining the will of God.

It is worthy of note that the Urim and Thummim appear elsewhere among the Qumran texts (although I will not put those in here to read) in The Last Days, A Collection of Messianic Proof Texts, and The Temple Scroll. Josephus' comments coincide with the Qumran texts. Here is his description of the Urim and Thummim.

Antiquities 3.214 I will now treat of what I before omitted, the garment of the high priest: for he (Moses) left no room for the evil practices of false prophets; but if some of that sort should attempt to abuse the divine authority, he left it to God to be present at his sacrifices when he pleased, and when he pleased to be absent. And he was willing this should be known, not to the Hebrews only, but to those foreigners also who were there. (215) For as to those stones, which we told you before, the high priest bore on his shoulders, which were sardonyxes (and I think it needless to describe their nature, they being known to everybody), the one of them shined out when God was present at their sacrifices; I mean that which was in the nature of a button on his right shoulder, bright rays darting out from there, and being seen even by those that were most remote; which splendor yet was not before natural to the stone. (216) This has appeared a wonderful thing to such as have not so far indulged themselves in philosophy, as to despise divine revelation. Yet will I mention what is still more wonderful than this: for God declared beforehand, by those twelve stones which the high priest bore on his breast, and which were inserted into his breastplate that he would be present for their assistance, They should know of God's presence when they should be victorious in battle; (217) for so great a splendor shone forth from them before the army began to march. Thus it came to pass that those Greeks, who had a veneration for our laws, because they could not possibly contradict this, called that breastplate, "The Oracle". (218) Now this breastplate, and this sardonyx, left off shining two hundred years before I composed this book, God having been displeased at the transgressions of his laws. Of which things we shall further discourse on a fitter opportunity; but I will now go on with my proposed narration.

Well, that was a rather long winded read. That's Josephus for you. He, too, confirms that a light or something shone forth from at least one of the stones (presumably the Urim). He also claims that he needn't expound too much on these stones, as everybody already knew about them. I find this frustrating because I don't know everything about them. Oh well - what's life without some mystery? Thus, we can take from these examples from the Qumran and Josephus that Jewish tradition held that these stones were used for judgment, to interpret God's will, and would answer via a light shining forth or with tongues of fire.

An interesting side note that may be worthy of further thought and research, would be the appearance of the tongues of fire on the disciples at pentecost in the Book of Acts as a sign of the Holy Spirit and the presence of God. Perhaps this is a transferance of the power of the Urim and Thummim into God's people. I'm certain that if it was well known about the nature of those stones as Josephus suggests, the Jews reading Acts at that time would certainly call that to mind.

We have travelled through omens and divinations throughout Mesopotamia, the Bible, the Qumran texts, and Josephus. In Mesopotamia we see that there was a long history of divination which eventually was systemically categorized and used by the baru-seer in order to divine the will of the gods. In the Bible we see God using a seer, Balaam, to deliver his message to Balak through prophecy, omens, and divination. Finally, we investigated the ever elusive Urim and Thummim and their somewhat unique powers of divination within the Israelite religious tradition. Thus, we can conclude that although the Bible does condemn divination outright on many occasions, there are also examples where God used divination within the context of the Israelite religion. It is possible that the divination which was condemned was divination which inquired of foreign gods whereas the divination within the Israelite tradition inquired of Yahweh. Or perhaps this is just a discrepancy.

This was more of just an interesting study, but for those of you who would like a "practical application", here's my two cents. From this study we can conclude that the next time your Christian friend says that God spoke to them through their horoscope or an omen, I would think twice before condemning them to hell and damnation. If you can think of anything else to add, feel free to comment.